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Lifestyle choices significantly influence overall health and disease prevention, making them a crucial yet manageable factor in disease control [1, 2, 3]. Chronic diseases now account for over 60% of global deaths, with a rising trend posing a major challenge to global health [4]. In developed nations, these conditions are the primary contributors to health issues, disabilities, and premature death, and they represent a substantial portion of healthcare costs [5]. In Western countries, chronic illnesses are driven by three main factors: prevalent risky behaviors and lifestyles [6, 7], detrimental social and environmental conditions, and an increasing life expectancy leading to more older individuals with chronic conditions [8].

A balanced diet, consistent exercise, and adequate sleep are fundamental components of a healthy lifestyle. Proper nutrition and regular physical activity can significantly delay or prevent chronic diseases [9, 10]. Additionally, sleep is a vital but often overlooked aspect of health [11, 12, 13]. With declining average sleep times and rising sleep disorders [14], adopting and maintaining healthy habits is crucial for disease prevention and management. Considering the timing of these habits can also enhance health benefits and adherence to lifestyle changes [15, 16]. This Special Issue explores the impact of behavioral rhythms on metabolic disorders and cancer.

Cancer cells often develop unique metabolic profiles, making them sensitive to dietary changes and overall metabolic state. This has led oncologists to investigate diet interventions. For example, dietary patterns and gut microbiome composition significantly affect colorectal cancer (CRC) risk. Cai et al. (contribution 1) examined this by studying 410 Han Chinese individuals, finding that a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, and dairy reduced CRC risk in individuals with certain gut microbiota types, with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.66.

Similarly, diet and microbiome regulation influence metabolic diseases like metabolic-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), now a prevalent global disorder. Lifestyle changes, including diet and exercise, are the most effective treatments for MASLD and related conditions like metabolic-associated steato-hepatitis (MASH) and liver cirrhosis. Bianco et al. (contribution 2) evaluated the effects of a Mediterranean diet and exercise on glucose metabolism in MASLD patients over a year, noting a decrease in HbA1c levels, particularly in those with moderate to severe steatosis. Gu et al. (contribution 3) investigated the impact of 24-hour behavioral rhythms on MASLD in 4502 overweight/obese adults. Higher activity levels and fasting durations were associated with a lower MASLD risk, particularly among those with obesity, highlighting the potential for behavioral interventions.

Social jetlag (SJL) refers to the mismatch between sleep schedules on workdays versus weekends [17]. SJL is associated with poor metabolic health. Nitta et al. (contribution 4) analyzed meal patterns using a food logging app among Japanese participants, revealing that those with an early chronotype and minimal SJL consumed more fibers, potassium, and other nutrients, while evening intakes of carbohydrates and fats were lower. App data may help establish dietary reference points and promote healthier eating patterns throughout the day.

In Asia, where Westernized eating habits have increased type 2 diabetes (T2DM) prevalence, Yang et al. (contribution 5) explored the link between healthy eating and reduced T2DM risk, noting sex-specific differences. Their findings showed higher T2DM rates among older men with lower education and income. Women who consumed higher levels of vitamin C, calcium, and other nutrients had a lower T2DM risk, suggesting gender-specific dietary influences on T2DM.

In Asia, where Westernized eating habits have increased type 2 diabetes (T2DM) prevalence, Yang et al. (contribution 5) explored the link between healthy eating and reduced T2DM risk, noting sex-specific differences. Their findings showed higher T2DM rates among older men with lower education and income. Women who consumed higher levels of vitamin C, calcium, and other nutrients had a lower T2DM risk, suggesting gender-specific dietary influences on T2DM.

Sleep also plays a crucial role in appetite and food choices. Reduced sleep duration increases hunger and food intake [18]. Gangitano et al. (contribution 6) reviewed how sleep impacts metabolism, emphasizing that understanding sleep-regulation mechanisms could improve metabolic health. Weight loss therapies can also enhance sleep quality and metabolic health.

Meyhöfer et al. (contribution 7) studied the effects of sleep timing on appetite regulation. In a small-scale lab study, late-night sleep loss increased hunger and appetite, while early-night sleep did not. These findings highlight the importance of circadian regulation in metabolism.

In conclusion, behavioral changes such as improved diet, increased exercise, and effective stress management promote better metabolic health. This special issue underscores the significance of timing in lifestyle interventions and the role of chronotype in optimizing health strategies.